Life & Career

• Born Naples (then Palermo); son of composer Alessandro Scarlatti; studied with his father
• Worked in Rome, Venice, Lisbon; appointed court composer to King João V of Portugal
• Moved to Madrid (1728) as music master to the Spanish royal family — spent rest of his life in Spain
• Composed over 550 keyboard sonatas, almost all single-movement binary works; also operas, oratorios, sacred and chamber music
• Sonatas composed as teaching pieces and for virtuoso performance by Princess (later Queen) Maria Barbara of Portugal
• Published his first 30 sonatas as Essercizi per gravicembalo (1738); most others remained in manuscript

About the Sonata Title

• Scarlatti called his keyboard pieces sonatas (Italian: "sounded piece") — each is a single movement in binary form
• They anticipate Classical sonata form — thematic material appears in the dominant key in Section A, and returns in the tonic in Section B
• Sonatas are catalogued by the Kirkpatrick (K.) catalogue (Ralph Kirkpatrick, 1953)
• Signs: Allegro = fast and lively (also cheerful); 2da volta = 2nd time (play only when Section A is repeated); the trill sign (~~) indicates a trill or upper mordent in Baroque music; acciaccatura = "crushed note" (grace note slide); fermata (𝄐) = pause/end of piece

Structure — Binary Form (AB)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A: Theme 1	b.1–17	A major	Imitative 2-part counterpoint. LH imitates RH 4 bars later (octave lower in b.5–8 and 16–17; 10th lower in b.13–15). Modulation to E major (dominant) from b.19, though no clinching V-I cadence yet. RH often syncopated in b.21–32. Three-part texture in b.33–36 (lower voices in 3rds). Two-part texture returns b.37–44. Rest on dominant chord (with no 3rd) in b.45.
A: Transition	b.17–61	A maj → E maj	Bars 46–61: dominant pedal prolongs E major, with inversions of its own dominant 7th (e.g. b.46, 48). Chordal texture; builds strong expectation for resolution to tonic chord.
A: Theme 2, Pt I	b.62–78	E minor	Resolution of dominant pedal arrives in E minor (dominant minor — unexpected). Motif (repeated note over barline + falling leap) recalls b.18–19 of transition. Tentative V-i cadence b.69–70 (no bass tonic). Theme repeated b.71–78 with stronger cadence leading directly to…
A: Theme 2, Pt II	b.78–95	E major	Similar motif to Pt I but in E major, broken chord LH accompaniment. V-I cadence b.83–84, reiterated b.89–90, 91–92, 93–94.
B: b.96–108	b.96–108	E → B minor	Theme 1 motifs in LH (E major b.96–102) then B minor. RH countermelody from b.5–8 in varied form b.96–99. Semiquaver chain of 3rds from b.10 in LH b.105. References to Theme 2 in RH b.101/103.
B: Sequence	b.109–115	Circle of 5ths	Circle of 5ths sequence (bass: C♯–F♯–B–E–A–D–G♯), with passing suggestions of F♯ minor (b.109–110), E minor (b.111–112) and D major (b.113–115).
B: Transition	b.116–138	A major	Transposition of b.33–61 down a 5th to A major; slightly varied and abridged.
B: Theme 2	b.139–171	A min → A maj	Theme 2 now in A minor (b.139–154) then A major — mostly a transposition of b.62–94 up a 4th, with small variations.

Baroque Style Characteristics

For What Instrument?

Scarlatti's sonatas were written for the harpsichord (though also playable on early fortepiano). The harpsichord has strings plucked by a quill (not struck), so touch does not affect volume. Dynamics must come from articulation, arpeggiation, and ornamentation — not touch alone. The harpsichord has a range of up to 5 octaves and often has two manuals.

Contemporaries of Scarlatti

J.S. Bach (German, 1685–1750), George Frideric Handel (German/English, 1685–1759), Antonio Vivaldi (Italian, 1678–1741), François Couperin (French, 1668–1733), Jean-Philippe Rameau (French, 1683–1764).

Life & Career

• Austrian composer; sometimes called the "father" of the symphony and string quartet
• His music (with Mozart and Beethoven) largely defines the late Classical style
• Employed by the aristocratic Esterházy family for most of his career — had resources and stability to develop his distinctive style
• After leaving the Esterházy court, made two successful trips to London where he was celebrated and composed his most famous symphonies (London Symphonies, Nos. 93–104)
• Influenced Beethoven (whom he briefly taught); influenced by C.P.E. Bach (flexible, expressive style)
• Exceptionally prolific: over 100 symphonies, 68 string quartets, numerous operas, masses, piano sonatas and chamber works
• Best-known: London Symphonies (Nos 93–104), oratorio The Creation, Cello Concerto in C

About This Sonata

• Sonata No. 44 (Hob. XVI:44) in G minor; likely composed c.1771, unpublished until 1788
• A sonata = multi-movement work for keyboard alone (or with accompaniment). Piano sonatas composed between the 1760s and 1790s reflect evolution from Galant style to mature Classical idiom
• The sonata has two movements — the second is a Minuet moving between G minor and its parallel major
• This first movement (Moderato) is in G minor; simple quadruple time; homophonic texture with melody in the right hand
• Expressive contrast between subjects: 1st subject is sombre and unsettled; 2nd subject is playful and jubilant — Haydn exploits the contrast to generate tension through the movement

Structure — Sonata Form

Section	Bars	Key	Description
First subject	1–4³	G minor	Main theme: two similar 2-bar phrases. First ends with imperfect cadence; second with strong perfect cadence.
Transition	4⁴–12³	G min → B♭ maj → B♭ min	Three segments. b.4⁴–6³: one-bar unit based on 1st subject repeated; modulation to B♭ major in b.6. b.6⁴–10³: new material over dominant pedal in relative major then parallel minor, ending with interrupted cadence in b.10. Final segment: more new material → imperfect cadence.
Second subject	12⁴–20	B♭ major	Core motif introduced b.12⁴–14; developed via sequence b.14⁴–17². Further material briefly tonicises F major (B♭'s dominant); strong perfect cadence end of b.20.
Closing group 1	21–24³	B♭ major	Derived from transition (b.4); developed by sequence → strong perfect cadence mid-b.24, eliding into closing theme 2.
Closing group 2	24³–28	B♭ major	Melody in LH (transformed version of closing theme 1). RH has inverted pedal point on dominant. Strong perfect cadence in b.28 — effectively concludes Exposition.
Bridge (repeat bars)	29–31	B♭/G min/C min	Tonic pedal then moves to key of next section. First-time repeat: imperfect cadence G minor. Second-time repeat: imperfect cadence C minor.
Development 1	32–37	C min → G min → F min	First two bars of 1st subject in C minor; modified form in G minor (weak perfect cadence); repeated in F minor.
Development 2	38–43³	F min → C min	Material from transition (b.5–6); through G minor and E♭ major → imperfect cadence in C minor.
Development 3	43⁴–46	C min (–E♭ maj)	First two bars of 2nd subject in C minor; ascending flourish in E♭ major → abrupt pause.
Development 4	47–52³	E♭ maj → G min	1st subject in E♭ major; sequence in C minor; freely developed through F minor, B♭ major, E♭ major → imperfect cadence in tonic.
Recap: 1st subject	52⁴–58¹	G minor	1st subject in tonic. 2nd phrase: elaborate chromatic diversion → eventual imperfect cadence.
Recap: 2nd subject	58²–64	G minor	2nd subject in tonic with small modifications.
Recap: Closing 1	65–72³	G minor	First closing theme in tonic; significant diversion from b.67 (≈ b.23 in Exposition) with cadenza-like passage b.67–71 → strong perfect cadence.
Recap: Closing 2	72³–76	G minor	Second closing theme transposed to tonic key.
Repeat bars	77–80	G min/C min	Modelled on b.29–31. First-time: back to C minor (imperfect). Second-time: remains tonic, emphatic perfect cadence.

Special Harmonic Features

• German augmented 6ths in b.11, 43, 52; Italian augmented 6th in b.30 — chromatic chords of dominant preparation
• Secondary dominants and secondary leading-note chords approach many of the imperfect cadences
• Suspensions in sequence in b.55³–56 of the Recapitulation, creating destabilising chromatic effect
• Cadential 6/4 (Ic) chords approach all the emphatic perfect cadences in the 2nd subject and closing themes
• Dominant pedal in Transition (b.6⁴–10³); tonic pedal in bridge (b.29)

Classical Characteristics

Signs and Terms

• Moderato = moderate speed; simple quadruple time (4 crotchet beats per bar)
• Augmented 6th chords (German/Italian): chromatic, add richness and lead strongly to the dominant
• Secondary dominants: temporarily function as the dominant to a chord that is not the tonic
• Cadential 6/4 (Ic): tonic chord 2nd inversion acting as double appoggiatura over dominant bass → resolves to V

For What Instrument?

Composed c.1771 — written for the fortepiano. The fortepiano differs from the modern piano: wooden frame (not iron), leather hammers (not felt), ~5½ octave range, knee-operated sustaining pedal, lighter/thinner tone with less sustaining power, no overstringing.

Contemporaries of Haydn

W.A. Mozart (Austrian, 1756–1791), Muzio Clementi (Italian, 1752–1832), C.P.E. Bach (German, 1714–1788), Luigi Boccherini (Italian, 1743–1805), Johann Albrechtsberger (Austrian, 1736–1809).

Life & Career

• Finnish composer from the late Romantic period; born in Hämeenlinna, southern Finland
• Abandoned legal studies to pursue music; studied violin and composition in Helsinki, then in Berlin and Vienna (teachers included Karl Goldmark)
• Established himself in Helsinki as composer and teacher of violin and music theory
• In 1897 granted a government pension, enabling him to concentrate on composition
• Early works influenced by Tchaikovsky; developed a more austere personal style imbued with Finnish nationalism
• Nationalistic works include symphonic poems Finlandia and Tapiola
• Published no new compositions after 1931 — there is evidence he may have completed and destroyed an eighth symphony; died 1957 aged 91
• Major works: 7 symphonies, violin concerto, symphonic poems (Finlandia, Tapiola), chamber music, choral music, songs, piano works (sonata, 3 sonatinas, Kyllikki, impromptus, romances, caprices)

About the Title

• A romance is a song-like piece, usually intimate and tender in character — a title often used by Romantic composers including Schumann, Brahms and Tchaikovsky
• This Romance is from Ten Pieces, Op. 24 (1901) — Op. 24 also contains two other romances, an impromptu, caprice, valse, idyll, Andantino, nocturno and barcarola

Structure — Free Rondo (ABACA)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
Intro	b.1–2	D♭ major	Tonic triad in 2nd inversion (alto register), constant quavers, gently undulating pitch.
A — Pt I	b.3–10	D♭ major	Main theme: two almost identical 4-bar phrases, melody in bass. Accompaniment moves I → vi (b.4–5) → I. Melody moves mostly by step; notes on strong beats are often auxiliary notes (e.g. E♭ and G♭ in b.3). Each phrase melodically incomplete (ends on weak beat semiquaver) but harmonically complete (tonic chord with root in bass in b.6/10). Wistful and nostalgic mood.
A — Pt II	b.10–18	D♭ major	Melody in RH; begins with sequence harmonised with minor triads (vi in b.10, iii in b.11) → passing suggestion of F minor. Confirmed by V⁷-I cadences b.13–14 and 17–18. Melody ends on mediant note (F) in b.14 then tonic note (D♭) in b.18. Quaver pulse halted for first time in b.18 — end of Section A.
B	b.19–32	B♭ min → F min → B♭ min	Much louder, agitated. B♭ minor (relative key); D♭ remains prominent in melody and bass. Accented diminished 7th chords in b.20/22 create expressive dissonance. Pt II of main theme in unison octaves b.22–26, moving from B♭ minor to F minor (confirmed V⁷-i, b.25–26). Added 6th in dominant 7th in b.25. Returns to B♭ minor b.26–29 in 4-part chordal quavers; upper voice descends by step. Main theme Pt I in tenor register b.29; harmony moves circle of 5ths B♭–E♭–A♭–D♭ b.30–32.
A	b.33–40	D♭ major	Main theme Pt I similar to b.3–10 but now melodically complete (semiquavers move by step to E♭ in b.35/39); harmonically incomplete (last note harmonised with inversion of V⁷ at b.36/40). Short answering figure b.40 (p) — comes to rest on tonic chord. RH now has countermelody in 3-part chordal texture, initially parallel with LH, becoming independent.
A Pt II	b.40–44	D♭ major	Similar to b.10–12, slightly louder and fuller. Pitch range widens in b.42–44; texture becomes fuller — melody incomplete at end of b.44, interrupted by Episode 2.
C	b.45–54	D♭ major	Feels like continuation rather than a distinct episode. First 5 notes of main theme (transposed up 3rd: A♭–G♭–A♭–B♭–A♭) repeated in b.45, 47, 49, 50, doubled in octaves. Harmony alternates diminished 7th (B♭–D♭–E–A♭ in b.45, 47, 49–52) and dominant 7th (b.46, 48, 53–54), embellished with neighbour notes. Volume and density increase. Cadenza b.51–54: almost entire keyboard range; b.53 embellishes dominant 7th of D♭ with upper neighbour notes (B♭→A♭, F→E♭) and chromatic LH runs; D♭ scale flourish b.54 leads to…
A (final)	b.55–74	D♭ major	Melody in upper voice; full chordal texture; both melodically and harmonically complete (ends on tonic chord 3rd of chord in upper voice in b.58/62 — sense of exultation). Pt II begins similarly to b.10–17; final tonic chord delayed by digression b.70–72 (louder, higher). Completed softly and calmly b.73–74 with V⁷-I cadence.

Late Romantic Characteristics

Signs and Terms

• Andantino = at a walking pace (generally a little faster than Andante, though some composers intend the opposite)
• dolce = sweetly; più p = softer; più f = louder; meno f = less loudly
• fz (forzando) and sfz (sforzando) = strong accents; sfz is stronger than fz in this piece
• con pedale = with pedal (at performer's discretion); sopra = above (LH passes over RH)
• poco = a little; molto = much; possibile = as much as possible; allargando = becoming broader (slower)
• Editor additions: ♩ = c.58; espressivo = expressive; legatissimo = very smoothly; riten[uto] = hold back speed; ben marcato = well marked; ♩ (arpeggiated)

Contemporaries of Sibelius

Edward Elgar (English, 1857–1934), Gustav Mahler (Austrian, 1860–1911), Isaac Albéniz (Spanish, 1860–1909), Richard Strauss (German, 1864–1949), Carl Nielsen (Danish, 1865–1931), Rachmaninoff (Russian, 1873–1943).

Life & Career

• Brazilian pianist and composer of popular dance music; born Rio de Janeiro
• Earliest piano teacher was his mother; later studied with Lucien Lambert (African-American pianist and composer who had settled in Rio) — acquired thorough knowledge of Chopin's piano music, which influenced his style
• First composition Você bem sabe written age 14; earliest works were polkas and waltzes (some with habanera/tango characteristics)
• In the 1890s began writing tangos — the dance with which he would become most associated
• In 1910 commissioned to provide pre-theatre entertainment for the newly-opened Odeon cinema in Rio de Janeiro; played daily at the Odeon in the early 1920s
• Heitor Villa-Lobos described him as a "true incarnation of the soul" of Brazilian music; Villa-Lobos dedicated Choros No. 1 to him (1921)
• Composed more than 200 works: ~90 tangos, ~40 waltzes, ~30 polkas; tangos include Bambino, Beija-Flor, Brejeiro, Carioca, Cubanos, Odeon, Paulicea, Pinguim

About the Title

• Odeon composed 1910 — title refers to the glamorous new cinema in Rio de Janeiro where Nazareth performed; the name originally referred to a type of theatre in ancient Greece
• In the style of a Brazilian tango (also called tango brasileiro); related to the habanera — both share the characteristic accompanying rhythm ♩ ♪♩♩ (or variations)
• Brazilian tangos also contain ♩♩♩♩ rhythms (variation of the ♩ ♩♩ pattern)
• The tango began as a dance of the working classes in Argentina; became internationally fashionable around 1910

Structure — Rondo (ABACA), C♯ minor. Each section 16 bars, repeated.

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A	b.1–17	C♯ minor	Two 8-bar phrases in C♯ minor. Melodic interest mainly in LH. b.1–4: modulates to F♯ minor (subdominant); tonic and dominant 7th chords; LH melody descends slowly using steps and repeated notes; RH off-beat chords; combined produces recurring ♩♩ rhythm. b.5–8: return to C♯ minor, higher pitch; inversion of VI⁷ (acts like German 6th) in b.6 → dominant 7th by semitone step. b.7–8: RH semiquaver broken chords with neighbour notes; D♯ creates expressive dissonance; tentative V⁷-i cadence. b.9–16: second phrase similarly, LH into lower register from b.12; new melodic figure in RH b.13–15 using syncopated ♩♭♩ rhythm with appoggiatura (e.g. A → G♯).
B	b.18–34	E major	Episode 1 in E major (relative major key). LH uses ♩♩♩ accompaniment in most bars. RH melody uses ♩♩♩ or ♩ ♩♩ motif; upper notes of RH quaver chords are appoggiaturas. Inner voice descends by semitones (e.g. A♯–A♮–G♯–G♮ in b.18–21; chord notes C♯–C♮ in b.22 and B–A♯–A♮–G♯ in b.23–25). Grace note embellishments — lower and upper neighbours. Begins with "secondary dominant 7th" chord; diminished 7th in b.21 → inversion of chord ii in b.22 → dominant pedal b.23–24 → V⁷-I cadence b.24–25. Episode restated b.26–34 almost identically, but melody altered from b.32 to end on tonic note.
A	b.35–50	C♯ minor	Main theme as before (without repeat, using first-time ending).
C (Trio)	b.51–69	E major	Episode 2 in E major — more contrasting; called "Trio" (referring to contrasting section of Classical Minuet and Trio). LH habanera/tango rhythm ♩ ♩♩♩ (or variant ♩ ♩♩) in every bar. Only diminished 7th, dominant 7th and tonic harmony; to be played exuberantly (com brillo). b.59–69: continues quasi-sequentially in E major; passing suggestions of F♯ minor (b.59–60) and C♯ minor (b.61–62), contributing to tender mood (mimoso). Expressive dissonance in almost every bar (e.g. A → G♯ in b.59). Diminished 7th in b.63 (with accented passing note D♯) → cadential 6/4 in b.64 (first time) or b.67 (second time); first-time ends on dominant 7th b.66; second-time V⁷-I cadence b.68–69.
A (final)	b.70–85	C♯ minor	Main theme as before (without repeat, using second-time ending).

Style Characteristics

Signs and Terms

• Gingando = swaying; secco = dry (unpedalled); sempre secco = always dry
• Paired grace notes (b.17, etc.) = acciaccature; expressivo = expressively
• segue Trio = go directly to the Trio; com brillo = with brilliance; mimoso = dainty or delicate
• menos = less (softer, less brilliant in tone); riten[uto] = hold back speed (immediately slower)
• Editor additions: ♩ = c.84; - (mezzo staccato); senza pedale = without pedal; – (tenuto, held)

Contemporaries of Nazareth

Isaac Albéniz (Spanish, 1860–1909), Enrique Granados (Spanish, 1867–1916), Scott Joplin (American, c.1868–1917), Joaquín Nin (Cuban, 1879–1949), Heitor Villa-Lobos (Brazilian, 1887–1959), Ernesto Lecuona (Cuban, 1896–1963).

Baroque (c.1600 – c.1750) — Scarlatti

• Instrument: Harpsichord, clavichord; Forms: Binary, ternary, ritornello, fugue, suite
• Ornate, elaborate; one mood, one theme, one rhythmic pattern per movement; constant pulse
• Counterpoint/imitation; both hands often equal importance; polyphonic texture common
• Ornamentation common; dynamics usually "terraced" (immediate changes); long phrases; sequences; hemiola before cadences
• Modulations to closely related keys (up/down a 5th); tierce de Picardie common at ends of minor-key pieces
• Composers: J.S. Bach, Handel, Scarlatti, Vivaldi, Couperin, Rameau, Purcell, Telemann

Classical (c.1750 – c.1820) — Haydn

• Instrument: Fortepiano; Forms: Sonata, rondo, minuet & trio, theme & variations
• Light, elegant, restrained; homophonic (one melody + subordinate accompaniment); Alberti bass
• Short, balanced phrases using scales/broken chord motives; diatonic harmonies; clear tonal direction
• Modulations to closely related keys; steady (not rigid) pulse; moderate dynamics; careful ornamentation
• Composers: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Clementi, Hummel, Schubert

Romantic (c.1810 – c.1900) — Sibelius (late Romantic)

• Instrument: Pianoforte (still developing); Forms: Ternary, through-composed, character pieces
• Passionate, expressive; rubato; wide dynamic range; detailed expressive instructions
• Long lyrical phrases, warm cantabile tone; rich chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); modulations by 3rds; expressive dissonance
• Virtuosity; thick textures; sustaining pedal essential; often nationalistic
• Composers: Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Sibelius, Albéniz

20th/21st Century — Nazareth

• Great diversity of styles; some maintained common-practice harmony; some abandoned it entirely
• Nazareth: combines European Romanticism + Latin American popular dance (Brazilian tango/habanera)
• Syncopation, catchy melodies, regular phrase structure, colourful harmonies — popular dance idiom
• Other 20th-century styles: atonality/serialism (Schoenberg), percussive piano (Bartók, Prokofiev), neoclassicism

Harpsichord vs. Fortepiano vs. Modern Piano

• Harpsichord (c.1400–1800): Strings plucked by quill; touch doesn't affect volume; articulation/ornamentation used for accentuation; up to 5 octaves; some have two manuals; Scarlatti's instrument
• Clavichord (c.1400–1800): Strings struck by tangent; capable of dynamics but very soft tone; J.S. Bach's favourite; can produce Bebung vibrato
• Fortepiano (late 18th C): Wood frame; leather hammers (not felt); ~5½ octaves; knee-operated sustaining pedal; no overstringing; lighter/thinner tone; less sustaining power — Haydn's instrument
• Modern Piano: Iron frame; felt hammers; 7 octaves; overstrung bass; double-escapement action; three foot pedals; richer, fuller tone filling concert halls

Piano Development Timeline

• ~1700: Bartolomeo Cristofori (Florence) invents piano — "gravicembalo col piano e forte"
• 1780s: Range increases to 5½ octaves
• 1821: Double-escapement action (Sébastien Erard)
• 1826: Felt hammer coverings (Henri Pape, Paris)
• 1859: Overstringing patented (Henry Steinway Jr.)
• 1874: Sostenuto (selective sustain) pedal (Albert Steinway)

Exam Tips (Grade 8 General Knowledge)

• ✅ Memorise composer birth/death dates and nationality
• ✅ Know at least 6 piano works per major composer; also know their key non-piano works
• ✅ Know the year each piece was composed
• ✅ Be able to describe form in ~5 sentences — practise saying it aloud or recording yourself
• ✅ Always relate answers back to the score — point to passages, don't just describe abstractly
• ✅ For any chord technique, explain WHY it was used, not just what it is
• ❌ Don't memorise bar numbers — just point to the music
• ❌ Don't list every cadence — know where structurally important ones are
• 💡 Know what instrument each piece was written for and how it differs from the modern piano